Techniques

Breath sounds with little or no definite pitch: the player blows through the instrument so that the air itself is heard. Often written with hollow, diamond or other special noteheads, sometimes with a mix of air and tone indicated. Used on winds and brass.

A soft, “whispering” shimmer. On harp it is a quiet, rapid tremolo of a note or chord between the hands; on woodwinds it means a timbral trill, alternating fingerings for the same pitch. Written “bisb.”, usually with tremolo or trill marks.

Breathing in through the nose while pushing air out with the cheeks, so the sound continues without a break for breath. The score usually shows long held notes or phrases with no breathing places and a note asking for circular breathing. Used on winds and brass.

A metronome pulse heard through earphones that keeps performers in time, often with fixed media or electronics. Bar or cue numbers in the score match the click. Any instrument.

Playing with the wood of the bow instead of the hair: struck against the string (col legno battuto) or drawn across it (col legno tratto). Written “col legno” or “c.l.”, often with “battuto” or “tratto”. Bowed string instruments.

Rhythms that are demanding to read and count: irregular or nested tuplets, frequently changing or unusual metres, or parts moving independently of one another. Written in standard rhythmic notation, often with many tuplet brackets and metric changes. Any instrument.

Pre-recorded sound played back during the performance (once called “tape”). The score shows the recording’s events or timings so that the performers can stay together with it. Any instrument; needs playback equipment.

Rolling the tongue (as in a rolled “r”) or gargling in the throat while playing, which gives the tone a rapid flutter. It is usually written with tremolo slashes through the stem and “flz.” or “flutter-tongue”. Used on flute and other woodwinds, and on brass.

A continuous slide from one pitch to another. Written as a straight or wavy line between the two notes, often with “gliss.”. Possible on strings, trombone, voice, timpani and many other instruments; on harp and keyboards it is played as a rapid sweep over the strings or keys.

Sounds are suggested by drawings, shapes or symbols instead of, or alongside, standard notation; the performer interprets them following the composer’s instructions. Any instrument.

The performer creates part of the music within limits the composer sets, such as given pitches, durations, characters or written instructions. Usually shown with boxes, text, given material or graphics. Any instrument.

Light, often higher pitches from the instrument’s overtones: on strings by touching a string lightly at a node, on winds by overblowing or special fingerings. Usually written with a small circle above the note, or a diamond notehead for the lightly touched position. Strings, harp, guitar and winds.

Playing directly on the strings or frame of the piano: plucking, muting, striking or sweeping the strings by hand or with mallets. Written with text, special noteheads or diagrams, explained in the performance notes. Usually needs a grand piano with the lid open.

The percussive sound of keys or pads closing, with little or no blown tone. Written with cross or other special noteheads and the words “key clicks”. Used on woodwinds such as flute, clarinet, saxophone, oboe and bassoon.

Electronic sound made or transformed during the performance, for example by processing the instruments’ sound with a computer. The score shows cues for the electronics; a technical rider usually lists the equipment, and someone (a technician or the performer) runs the cues.

Intervals smaller than a semitone, most often quarter-tones. They are written with modified accidentals or arrows, explained in the score’s performance notes. Possible on strings, voice and most wind instruments; limited on keyboards with fixed tuning.

Two or more pitches sounding at once on an instrument that normally plays one note at a time. On woodwinds they come from special fingerings; on brass, usually from singing into the instrument while playing. They are written as a chord, often with a fingering diagram or a reference to a fingering chart.

Bowing with more pressure than a clean tone allows, producing a crunching, noisy or distorted sound. Written with text such as “overpressure” or with symbols explained in the performance notes. Bowed string instruments.

Objects placed on or between the strings, or attached to the instrument, to change its sound; the prepared piano is the best-known case. The score usually gives a preparation table listing each object and where it goes. Mainly piano; also guitar, harp and percussion.

Time is shown by horizontal space rather than by note values: how far a sound extends along the page shows how long it lasts, often with timings in seconds above the staff. Any instrument.

Retuning one or more strings away from standard tuning, for a whole piece or a passage. The new tuning is given at the start, and the score says whether the part is written at fingered or at sounding pitch. Strings, guitar and harp.

The player sings or hums into the instrument while playing, so voice and instrument sound together. The sung pitches are usually written on a separate staff or with a different notehead. Common on flute and brass, also on other winds.

A short, percussive attack: the tongue draws the reed away from the mouthpiece with suction and releases it, so that it slaps back. Written with a special notehead or the word “slap”. Mainly on clarinets and saxophones; related percussive attacks exist on other winds.

Bowing very close to the bridge, which gives a glassy, bright sound with strong upper partials. Written “sul pont.” or “s.p.”, and cancelled with “ord.” (ordinario). Bowed string instruments.

A sharp thrust of the tongue into a fully covered embouchure hole or mouthpiece stops the air abruptly and gives a short, hollow, percussive sound. On flute it sounds lower than the fingered note. Written with a special notehead or text explained in the performance notes. Mainly flute, also other winds.